Abstract
Borno in north-east Nigeria is internationally known today as the location of one of the world’s biggest humanitarian crises. Despite Nigeria being known as the cradle of modern international humanitarian aid as a result of the Biafran Civil War (1967-1970), Nigeria has otherwise historically had little experience with international aid intervention. After the Civil War, international aid actors rolled back their work almost entirely. Nonetheless from the 1980s large international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) including UN agencies maintained a minimal presence in Nigeria, as was custom in developing countries. They predominantly worked in emergency first aid, healthcare, advocacy, education, and child protection. Home-grown Nigerian NGOs at the time worked mostly in community security, and advocacy, notably for democracy and the prevention of HIV/AIDS. When the Boko Haram insurgency first broke out in 2009 the international community was slow to react. This was partly because Nigeria was seen as a resource-rich country with a clear path to development that would be able to contain the crisis. However, by mid 2010s there was a massive influx of both international and home-grown NGOs into Borno with hundreds of millions to roughly one billion dollars (USD) in aid money being invested annually.This thesis places the historical evolution of NGOs in Borno, Nigeria into the wider context of global NGO proliferation which began in the mid-late 20th century. In doing this, it is evident that key modern developments and concepts in the international aid sector such as the rise of the service-provision model of NGO aid and aid localisation have taken root in Borno. Particularly in the case of the latter, evidently home-grown NGOs and actors are more integrated in aid processes than they have been elsewhere in previous decades. Nevertheless, to a large extent they still answer to international partners who are also often their donors. This is only possible because international NGOs receive the vast majority of aid funds invested. From this, it is clear that despite some progress the fundamental nature of aid since the 1990s remains unchanged. Nonetheless the winds of change continue to blow as from the 2010s and particularly in the 2020s the issue of structural racism and need for greater aid localisation within the aid sector is becoming increasingly widely acknowledged. This thesis uncovers evidence of racism in Borno, including the preferential treatment of white international NGO staff perpetrated both within international NGOs and by some Nigerian actors. Additionally, to an extent these racial inequalities are institutionalised by the aid sector in terms of how for example capacity is understood and defined. Often the critiques of the level of home-grown capacity, while sometimes legitimate, still overlook its already existing utility in favour of professionalised technical capacity.
There is also clearly a power struggle between international NGOs and the Nigerian government with the former seeking to operate with as much freedom as possible and the latter striving to ensure they do not stray too far from their predominantly service provision role. However, this does not extend to being a threat to Nigeria’s sovereignty which international actors do not attempt to challenge or replace, despite some concerns of this within the government.
Finally, with regards to community perceptions of NGOs in Borno it is evident that community members are equal parts grateful for aid intervention, particularly emergency aid including food and shelter, and suspicious of NGOs, particularly international NGOs and what their ‘true’ motives may be. Whilst international NGOs have ingrained themselves with the local elite who provide them with local access, this has largely not extended to the general populace who would like them to be more relatable and communicative. The humanitarian principle of neutrality was also widely critiqued by community members and government workers. Its practice in Borno has been key in enabling the notion that ‘NGOs are helping Boko Haram’ to consolidate. Meanwhile some community members see home-grown NGOs as more prone to corruption than their international counterparts and so in some cases viewed international NGOs more favourably. Nonetheless it was generally expressed it is crucial international NGOs and actors work with local actors, whether they be home-grown NGOs, traditional leaders, or hiring locals directly.
Date of Award | 1 Dec 2022 |
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Original language | English |
Awarding Institution |
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Supervisor | Vincent Hiribarren (Supervisor) & Kieran Mitton (Supervisor) |